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Rosalind Franklin - Wikipedia
Rosalind Elsie Franklin 25 July — 16 April [1] was an English chemist and X-ray crystallographer whose work was central to the understanding of the molecular structures of DNA deoxyribonucleic acid dna computing thesis, RNA ribonucleic acidvirusescoaland graphite.
She graduated in with a degree in natural sciences from Newnham College, Cambridgeand then enrolled for a PhD in physical chemistry under Ronald George Wreyford Norrishthe Chair of Physical Chemistry at the University of Cambridge.
The research on coal helped her earn a PhD from Cambridge in After joining King's College London in as a research associate, she discovered the key properties of DNA, which eventually facilitated the correct description of the double helix structure of DNA. Franklin is best known for her work on the X-ray diffraction images of DNA while at King's College London, particularly Photo 51taken by her student Raymond Goslingwhich led to the discovery of the DNA double helix for which Francis CrickJames Watsondna computing thesis, and Maurice Wilkins shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in Working under John Desmond BernalFranklin led pioneering work at Birkbeck on the molecular structures of viruses.
Her team member Aaron Klug continued her research, winning the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in Franklin was born on 25 July in 50 Chepstow Villas, dna computing thesis, [16] Notting HillLondon, dna computing thesis, into an affluent and influential British Jewish family.
Franklin's father was Ellis Arthur Franklin —a politically liberal London merchant banker who taught at the city's Working Men's Collegeand her mother was Muriel Frances Waley — Rosalind was the elder daughter and the second child in the family of five children. David — was the eldest brother; Colin —Roland bornand Jenifer born were her younger siblings.
Franklin's paternal great-uncle was Herbert Samuel later Viscount Samuelwho was the Home Secretary in and the first practising Jew to serve in the British Cabinet. Rosalind's middle name, "Elsie", was in memory of Hugh's first wife, who died in the flu pandemic. Franklin's parents helped settle Jewish refugees from Europe who had escaped the Nazisparticularly those from the Kindertransport.
From early childhood, Franklin showed exceptional scholastic abilities. At age six, she joined her brother Roland at Norland Place Schoola private day school in West London. At that time, her aunt Mamie Helen Bentwichdescribed her to her husband: "Rosalind is alarmingly clever — she spends all her time doing arithmetic for pleasure, and invariably gets her sums right.
At age nine, she entered a boarding school, Lindores School for Young Ladies in Sussex. She was 11 when she went to St Paul's Girls' School in Hammersmithwest London, one of the few girls' schools in London that taught physics and chemistry. She topped her classes, dna computing thesis, and won annual awards.
Her only educational weakness was in music, for which the school music director, the composer Gustav Holstonce called upon her mother to inquire whether she might have suffered from hearing problems or tonsillitis. Franklin went to Newnham College, Cambridge in and studied chemistry within the Natural Sciences Tripos. There she met the spectroscopist Bill Pricewho worked with her as a laboratory demonstrator and who later became one of her senior colleagues at King's College London.
The distinction was accepted as a bachelor's degree in qualifications for employment. Cambridge began awarding titular BA and MA degrees to women fromand the previous women graduates dna computing thesis received these. Franklin was awarded a research fellowship at Newnham College, with which she joined the physical chemistry laboratory of the University of Cambridge to work under Ronald George Wreyford Norrishwho later won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
In her one year of work there, she did not have much success. At that time he was succumbing to heavy drinking. Franklin wrote that he made her despise him completely.
Norrish acted as advisor to the military at BCURA. John G. Bennett was the director. Marcello Pirani and Victor Goldschmidtboth refugees from the Nazis, were consultants and lectured at BCURA while Franklin worked there. With Irene, she volunteered as an Air Raid Warden and regularly made patrols to see the welfare of people during air raids. She studied the porosity of coal using helium to determine its density. By concluding that substances dna computing thesis expelled in order of molecular size as temperature increased, she helped classify coals and accurately predict their performance for fuel purposes and for production of wartime devices such as gas masks.
With World War II ending inFranklin asked Adrienne Weill for help and to let her know of job openings for "a dna computing thesis chemist dna computing thesis knows very little physical chemistry, but quite a lot about the holes in coal. This led to her appointment with Jacques Mering at the Laboratoire Central des Dna computing thesis Chimiques de l'État in Paris.
She joined the labo as referred to by the staff of Mering on 14 February as one of the fifteen chercheurs researchers. Mering was an X-ray crystallographer who applied X-ray diffraction to the study of rayon and other amorphous substances, in contrast to the thousands of regular crystals that had been studied by this method for many years. This presented new challenges in the conduct of experiments and the interpretation of results.
Franklin applied them to further problems related to coal and to other carbonaceous materials, in particular the changes to the arrangement of atoms when these are converted to graphite. She coined the terms graphitising and non-graphitising carbon. The coal work was covered in a monograph, [51] and in the regularly-published textbook Chemistry and Physics of Carbon. In Januaryshe started working as a research associate in the Medical Research Council's MRC Biophysics Unit, directed by John Randall.
InSwiss chemist Rudolf Signer in Berne prepared a highly purified DNA sample from calf thymus. He freely distributed the DNA sample, later referred to as the Signer DNA, in dna computing thesis May at the meeting of the Faraday Society in London, and Wilkins was one of the recipients. Franklin, now working with Gosling, [64] started to apply her expertise in X-ray diffraction techniques to the structure of DNA.
She used a new fine-focus X-ray tube and microcamera ordered by Wilkins, but which she refined, adjusted and focused carefully. Drawing upon her physical chemistry background, a critical innovation she applied was making the camera chamber that could be controlled for its humidity using different saturated salt solutions. Franklin's habit of intensely looking people in the eye while being concise, impatient and direct unnerved many of her colleagues.
In stark contrast, Wilkins was very shy, and slowly calculating in speech while he avoided looking anyone directly in the eye. She originally referred dna computing thesis the former as "wet" and the latter as "crystalline. On the structure of the crystalline DNA, Franklin first recorded the analysis in her notebook, which reads: "Evidence for spiral [meaning helical] structure.
Straight chain untwisted is highly improbable. Absence of reflections on meridian in χtalline [crystalline] form suggests spiral structure. In her lecture notes, she wrote the following:.
Franklin then named " A " and "B" respectively for the "wet" and "crystalline" forms. The dna computing thesis functions of A-DNA were discovered only 60 years later.
Franklin chose the data rich "A" form while Wilkins selected the "B" form, dna computing thesis. By the end of it became generally accepted at King's that the B-DNA was a helixbut after she had recorded an asymmetrical image in MayFranklin became unconvinced that the A-DNA was a helix.
It is with great regret that we have to announce the death, on Friday 18th July of DNA helix crystalline.
Death followed a protracted illness which an intensive course dna computing thesis Besselised [referring to Bessel function that was used to analyse the X-ray diffraction patterns [73] ] injections had failed to relieve. A memorial service will be held next Monday or Tuesday, dna computing thesis. Dna computing thesis is hoped that Dr M H F Wilkins will speak in memory of the late helix. Duringthey worked at applying the Patterson function to the X-ray pictures of DNA they had produced.
This was a long and labour-intensive approach but would yield significant insight into the structure of the molecule. By JanuaryFranklin had reconciled her conflicting data, concluding that both DNA forms had two helices, and had started to write a series of three draft manuscripts, two of which included a double helical DNA backbone see below.
Her two A-DNA manuscripts reached Acta Crystallographica in Copenhagen on 6 Marchone day before Crick and Watson had completed their model on B-DNA. She must have mailed them while the Cambridge team was building their model, and certainly had written them before she knew of their work. The third draft paper was on the B-DNA, dated 17 Marchwhich was discovered years later amongst her papers, by Franklin's Birkbeck colleague, Aaron Dna computing thesis. He had written this first article in response to the incomplete picture of Franklin's work depicted in James Watson 's memoir, The Double Helix.
As vividly described Watson, he travelled to King's on 30 January carrying a preprint of Linus Pauling 's incorrect proposal for DNA structure.
Since Wilkins was not in his office, Watson went to Franklin's lab with his urgent message that they should all collaborate before Pauling discovered his error. The unimpressed Franklin became angry when Watson suggested she did not know how to interpret her own data.
Watson hastily retreated, backing into Wilkins who had been attracted by the commotion. Dna computing thesis commiserated with his harried friend and then showed Watson Franklin's DNA X-ray image, dna computing thesis. In FebruaryJames Watson and Francis Crick of the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge University had started to build a molecular model of the B-DNA using data similar dna computing thesis that available to both teams at King's. Based on Franklin's lecture in November that DNA was helical with either two or three stands, they constructed a triple helix model, which was immediately proven to be flawed.
She took the view that building a model was to be undertaken only after enough of the structure was known. Ever cautious, she wanted to eliminate misleading possibilities, dna computing thesis.
Photographs of her Birkbeck work table show that she routinely used small molecular models, although certainly not ones on the grand scale successfully used at Cambridge for DNA, dna computing thesis. In the middle of FebruaryCrick's thesis advisor, Max Perutzgave Crick a copy of a report written for a Medical Research Council biophysics committee visit dna computing thesis King's in Decembercontaining many of Franklin's crystallographic calculations. Since Franklin had decided to transfer to Birkbeck College and Randall had insisted that all DNA work must stay at King's, Wilkins was given copies of Franklin's diffraction photographs by Gosling.
By 28 FebruaryWatson and Crick felt they had solved the problem enough for Crick to proclaim in the local pub that they had "found the secret of life". Watson and Crick finished building their model on 7 Marchdna computing thesis, one day before they received a letter from Wilkins stating that Franklin was finally leaving and they could put "all hands to the pump", dna computing thesis.
Wilkins came to see the model the following week, according to Franklin's biographer Brenda Maddoxon 12 March, dna computing thesis, and allegedly informed Gosling on his return to King's, dna computing thesis.
One of the most critical and overlooked moments in DNA research was how and when Franklin realised and conceded that B-DNA was a double helical molecule. When Klug first examined Franklin's documents after her death, he initially came to an impression that Franklin was not convinced of the double helical nature until the knowledge of the Cambridge model. The news of Watson—Crick model reached King's the next day, dna computing thesis, 18 March, [80] suggesting that Franklin would have learned of it much later since she had moved to Birkbeck.
Further scrutiny of her notebook revealed that Franklin had already thought of the helical structure for B-DNA in February but was not sure of the number of strands, as she wrote: "Evidence for 2-chain or 1-chain helix. Towards the end of February she began to work out the indications of double strands, as she noted: "Structure B does not fit single helical theory, even for low layer-lines.
Weeks later, dna computing thesis, on 10 April, Franklin wrote to Crick for permission to see their model. She is reported to have commented, "It's very pretty, but how are they going to prove it? Accordingly, dna computing thesis, her response to the Watson—Crick model was in keeping with her cautious approach to science.
Crick and Watson then published their model in Nature on 25 Aprilin an article describing the double-helical structure of DNA with only a footnote acknowledging "having been stimulated by a general knowledge of Franklin and Wilkins' "unpublished" contribution.
As a result of a deal struck by the two laboratory directors, articles by Wilkins and Franklin, which included their X-ray diffraction dna computing thesis, were modified and then published second and third in the same issue of Natureseemingly only in support of the Crick and Watson theoretical paper which proposed a model for the B-DNA.
At first mainly geneticists embraced the model because of its obvious genetic implications. Franklin left King's College London in mid-March for Birkbeck Collegein a move that had been planned for some time and that she described in a letter to Adrienne Weill in Paris as "moving from a palace to the slums
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