Dec 21, · Proper sample size calculation is both a scientific and ethical imperative. Researchers are routinely asked to justify the number of animals used in their studies, either by regulatory bodies, funding agencies or, increasingly, by journal blogger.com accordance with the 3R's, studies should be designed to reduce the number of animals used to meet scientific objectives The IJRDO Journal of Law and Cyber Crime is a an open access journal which publishes research articles, reviews, case studies, guest edited thematic issues and short communications/letters in all areas of crime and law enforcement, education, family and children rights, human rights, legal actions, administrative law, health care law, military The Cambridge Centre for Animal Rights Law is an academic centre of competence dedicated to the study of fundamental rights for non-human animals and is based in Cambridge, UK. The Centre builds on the success of the Talking Animals, Law & Philosophy series which has become a renowned forum for exchange of research in animal rights law ever
Animal Experiments in Biomedical Research: A Historical Perspective
Animal rights is the philosophy according to which many or all sentient animals are entitled to the possession of their own existence and that their most basic interests—such as the need to avoid suffering —should be afforded the same consideration as similar interests of human beings. Advocates for animal rights oppose the assignment of moral value and fundamental protections on the basis of species membership alone—an idea known as speciesism sincewhen Richard D.
Ryder adopted the term [4] —arguing that it is a prejudice as irrational as any other. In parallel to the debate about moral rights, law schools in North America now often teach animal law[7] and several legal scholars, such as Steven M.
Wise and Gary L. Francionesupport the extension of basic legal rights and personhood to non-human animals. The animals most often considered in arguments for personhood are hominids.
Some animal-rights academics support this because it would break through the species barrier, but others oppose it because it predicates moral value on mental complexity, rather than on sentience alone. Outside the order of primatesanimal-rights discussions most often address the status of mammals compare charismatic megafauna. Other animals considered less sentient have gained less attention; insects relatively little [10] outside Jainismand animal-like bacteria despite their overwhelming numbers hardly any.
Critics of animal rights argue that nonhuman animals are animal rights research papers to enter into a social contractand thus cannot be possessors of rights, a view summed up by the philosopher Roger Scruton —who writes that only humans have duties, and therefore only humans have rights.
Congress with the enactment of laws, including the Animal Enterprise Terrorism Actallowing the prosecution of this sort of activity as terrorism. For some the basis of animal rights is in religion or animal worship or in general nature worshipanimal rights research papers, with some religions banning killing of any animal, and in other religions animals can be considered unclean.
Hindu and Buddhist societies abandoned animal sacrifice and embraced vegetarianism from the 3rd century BCE. According to Buddhist belief, humans do not deserve preferential treatment over other living beings. In Islam, animal rights were recognized early by the Sharia. This recognition is based on both the Qur'an and the Hadith, animal rights research papers. In the Qur'an, there are many references to animals, detailing that they have souls, form animal rights research papers, communicate with God and worship Him in their own way.
Muhammad forbade his followers to harm any animal and asked them to respect the rights of animals. According to Christianityall animals, from the smallest to the largest, are cared for and loved. According to the Bible, "All these animals waited for the Lord, that the Lord might give them food at the hour. The Lord gives them, they receive; The Lord opens his hand, and they are filled with good things".
The two main philosophical approaches to animal ethics are utilitarian and rights-based. The former is exemplified by Peter Singerand the latter by Tom Regan and Gary Francione. Deontologists argue that there are acts we should never perform, even if failing to do so entails a worse outcome.
There are a number of positions that can be defended from a consequentalist or deontologist perspective, including the capabilities approachrepresented by Martha Nussbaumand the egalitarian approachwhich has been examined by Ingmar Persson and Peter Vallentyne. The capabilities approach focuses on what individuals require to fulfill their capabilities: Nussbaum argues that animals need a right to life, some control over their environment, company, play, and physical health.
Stephen R. ClarkMary Midgleyand Bernard Rollin also discuss animal rights in terms of animals being permitted to animal rights research papers a life appropriate for their kind. Rosalind Hursthouse has suggested an animal rights research papers to animal rights based on virtue ethics. Nussbaum writes that utilitarianism, starting with Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, has contributed more to the recognition of the moral status of animals than any other ethical theory.
Singer is not a rights theorist, but uses the language of rights to discuss how we ought to treat individuals. He is a preference utilitarianmeaning that he judges the rightness of an act by the extent to which it satisfies the preferences interests of those affected. His position is that there is no reason not to give equal consideration animal rights research papers the interests of human and nonhumans, though his principle of equality does not require identical treatment.
A mouse and a man both have an interest in not being kicked, and there are no moral or logical grounds for failing to accord those interests equal weight. Interests are predicated on the ability to suffer, animal rights research papers, nothing more, and once it is established that a being has interests, those interests must be given equal consideration.
of the Universe, than the good of any other. Singer argues that equality of consideration is a prescription, not an assertion of fact: if the equality of the sexes were based only on the idea that men and women were equally intelligent, we would have to abandon the practice of animal rights research papers consideration if this were later found to be false. But the moral idea of equality does not depend on matters of fact such as intelligence, physical strength, or moral capacity.
Equality therefore cannot be grounded on the outcome of scientific investigations into the intelligence of nonhumans. All that matters is whether they can suffer. Commentators on all sides of the debate now accept that animals suffer and feel pain, although it was not always so. Bernard Rollinprofessor of philosophy, animal sciences, and biomedical sciences at Colorado State University, writes that Descartes' influence continued to be felt until the s.
Veterinarians trained in the US before were taught to ignore pain, he writes, and at least one major veterinary hospital in the s did not stock narcotic analgesics for animal pain control. In his interactions with scientists, animal rights research papers, he was often asked to "prove" that animals are conscious, and to provide "scientifically acceptable" evidence that they could feel pain. Scientific publications have made it clear since the s that the majority of researchers do believe animals suffer and feel pain, though it continues to be argued that their suffering may be reduced by an inability to experience the same dread of anticipation as humans, or to remember the suffering as vividly.
Singer writes that, if language were needed to communicate pain, it would animal rights research papers be impossible to know animal rights research papers humans are in pain, though we can observe pain behavior and make a calculated guess based on it. He argues that there is no reason to suppose that the pain behavior of nonhumans would have a different meaning from the pain behavior of humans.
Tom Regan, professor emeritus of philosophy at North Carolina State University, argues in The Case for Animal Rights that nonhuman animals are what he calls "subjects-of-a-life", and animal rights research papers such are bearers of rights. Although only humans act as moral agents, both marginal-case humans, such as infants, animal rights research papers, and at least some nonhumans must have the status of "moral patients". Moral patients are unable to formulate moral principles, and as such are unable to do right or wrong, even though what they do may be beneficial or harmful.
Only moral agents are able to engage in moral action. Animals for Regan have " intrinsic value " as subjects-of-a-life, and cannot be regarded as a means to an end, a view that places him firmly animal rights research papers the abolitionist camp. His theory does not extend to all animals, but only to those that can be regarded as subjects-of-a-life. individuals are subjects-of-a-life if they have beliefs and desires; perception, memory, and a sense of the future, including their own future; an emotional life together with feelings of pleasure and pain; preference- and welfare-interests; the ability to initiate action in pursuit of their animal rights research papers and goals; a psychophysical identity over time; and an individual welfare in the sense that their experiential life fares well or ill for them, logically independently of their utility for others and logically independently of their being animal rights research papers object of anyone else's interests.
Whereas Singer is primarily concerned with improving the treatment of animals and accepts that, in some hypothetical scenarios, individual animals might be used legitimately to further human or nonhuman ends, Regan believes we ought to treat nonhuman animals as we would humans. He applies the strict Kantian ideal which Kant himself applied only to humans that they ought never to be sacrificed as a means to an end, and must be treated as ends in themselves. Gary Francione, professor of law and philosophy at Rutgers Law School in Newark, is a leading abolitionist writer, arguing that animals need only one animal rights research papers, the right not to be owned.
Everything else would follow from that paradigm shift. He writes that, although most people would condemn the mistreatment of animals, and in many countries there are laws that seem to reflect those concerns, "in practice the legal system allows any use of animals, however abhorrent. In deciding what counts as "unnecessary", an animal's interests are weighed against the interests of human beings, and the latter almost always prevail.
Francione's Animals, Property, and the Law was the animal rights research papers extensive jurisprudential treatment of animal rights. In it, Francione compares the situation of animals to the treatment of slaves in the United Stateswhere legislation existed that appeared to protect them while the courts ignored that the institution of slavery itself rendered the protection unenforceable.
He argues that a focus on animal welfare, rather than animal rights, may worsen the position of animals by making the public feel comfortable about using them and entrenching the view of them as property. He calls animal rights groups who pursue animal welfare issues, such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animalsanimal rights research papers, the " new welfarists ", arguing that they have more in common with 19th-century animal protectionists than with the animal rights movement; indeed, the terms "animal protection" and "protectionism" are increasingly favored.
His position in was that there is no animal rights movement in the United States. Mark Rowlandsprofessor of philosophy at the University of Florida, animal rights research papers, has proposed a contractarian approach, based on the original position and the veil of ignorance —a "state of nature" thought experiment that tests intuitions about justice and fairness—in John Rawls 's A Theory of Justice In the original position, individuals choose principles of animal rights research papers what kind animal rights research papers society to form, and how primary social goods will be distributedunaware of their individual characteristics—their race, sex, class, or intelligence, whether they are able-bodied or disabled, rich or poor—and therefore unaware of which role they will assume in the society they are about to form.
The idea is that, operating behind the veil of ignorance, they will choose a social contract in which there is basic fairness and justice for them no matter the position they occupy. Rawls did not include species membership as one of the attributes hidden from the decision makers in the original position, animal rights research papers.
Rowlands proposes extending the veil of ignorance to include animal rights research papers, which he argues is an undeserved property similar to characteristics including race, sex and intelligence, animal rights research papers.
American philosopher Timothy Garry has proposed an approach that deems nonhuman animals worthy of prima facie rights. In animal rights research papers philosophical context, a prima facie Latin for "on the face of it" or "at first glance" right is one that appears to be applicable at first glance, animal rights research papers, but upon closer examination may be outweighed by other considerations.
In his book Ethics: A Pluralistic Approach to Moral TheoryLawrence Hinman characterizes such rights as "the right is real but leaves open the question of whether it is applicable and overriding in a particular situation". Garry supports his view arguing:. if a nonhuman animal were to kill a human being in the U. My point is that like laws govern all who interact within a society, rights are to be applied to all beings who interact within that society.
This is not to say these rights endowed by humans are equivalent to those held by nonhuman animals, but rather that if humans possess rights then so must all those who interact with humans. In sum, Garry suggests that humans have obligations to nonhuman animals; animals do not, and ought not to, have uninfringible rights against humans. Women have played a central role in animal advocacy since the 19th century. The modern animal advocacy movement has a similar representation of women.
They are not invariably in leadership positions: during the March for Animals in Washington, D. In the Netherlands, Marianne Thieme and Esther Ouwehand were elected to parliament in representing the Parliamentary group for Animals.
The preponderance of women in the movement has led to a body of academic literature exploring feminism and animal rights; feminism and vegetarianism or veganism, the oppression of women and animals, and the male association of women and animals with nature and emotion, rather than reason—an association that several feminist writers have embraced.
Some transhumanists argue for animal rights, animal rights research papers, liberation, and "uplift" of animal consciousness into machines, animal rights research papers. Freyprofessor animal rights research papers philosophy at Bowling Green State University, is a preference utilitarian, as is Singer. But, in his early work, Interests and RightsFrey disagreed with Singer — who in his Animal Liberation wrote that the interests of nonhuman animals must be included when judging the consequences of an act — on the grounds that animals have no interests.
Frey argues that interests are dependent on desire, and that no desire can exist without a corresponding belief. Animals have no beliefs, animal rights research papers, because a belief state requires the ability to hold a second-order belief—a belief about the belief—which he argues requires language: "If someone were to say, e.
Carl Cohenprofessor of philosophy at the University of Michigan, argues that rights holders must be able to distinguish between their own interests and what is right. In applying such rules, [they] must recognize possible conflicts between what is in their own interest and what is just. Only in a community of beings capable of self-restricting animal rights research papers judgments can the concept of a right be correctly invoked.
Cohen writes that the test for moral judgment "is not a test to be administered to humans one by one", but should be applied to the capacity of members of the species in general. Judge Richard Posner of the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit debated the issue of animal rights in with Peter Singer.
If a dog threatens a human infant, even if it requires causing more pain to the dog to stop it, than the dog would have caused to the infant, animal rights research papers, then we favour the child. It would be monstrous to spare the dog.
Singer challenges this by arguing that formerly unequal rights for gays, women, and certain races were justified using the same set of intuitions. Posner replies that equality in civil rights did not occur because of ethical arguments, but because facts mounted that there were no morally significant differences between humans based on race, sex, or sexual orientation that would support inequality.
The Ethics of Animal use in Research - Courtney Bannerman - TEDxQueensU
, time: 13:50Animal Rights Research Paper Topics For Students
The Parliamentary Research Service prepares papers on legislation before the Parliament and on major issues of interest to members. Papers cover a broad range of subject areas including law, politics, government, environment, economics and social issues The IJRDO Journal of Law and Cyber Crime is a an open access journal which publishes research articles, reviews, case studies, guest edited thematic issues and short communications/letters in all areas of crime and law enforcement, education, family and children rights, human rights, legal actions, administrative law, health care law, military That said, we have gathered excellent research paper topics for animal rights that you can use as motivation. All the best as you put them into practice for top grades. But first, let us take a look at the sample paper of the animal rights. Animal Rights Research Paper Example
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